The Classical Prototype: Athens versus Sparta
Contents of Page:
"I shall be satisfied if my words are judged useful by those who desire a clear understanding of the events which occurred in the past and which will occur again, in much the same way, in the future, human nature being what it is." The Athenian Thucydides, the first analytic historian in the Western tradition, made that remark in his landmark History of the Peloponnesian War. His landmark work is the major contemporary account of the fifth-century BC war between Thucydides' Athens and rival Sparta, and is the bedrock upon which any understanding of that war rests.
Athens was an open, materialistic and democratic society which was heavily dependent on allies and colonies for its prosperity. Athens' strength resided in her powerful but expensive navy. Sparta, by contrast, was a closed, autocratic, tightly regulated, and highly disciplined society which rested on the twin pillars of slave labor and its professional army. Using slave labor as the engine of an agrarian economy freed Spartan men for service in the most formidable, and indeed the only standing land army in fifth-century BC Greece. However, the persistent threat of slave revolt was an Achilles' heel for Spartan rulers. The protracted struggle (431-404 BC) between the two leading Greek states and their allies raises fundamental issues of policy, diplomacy, strategy and war which are recurring themes throughout the course.
Additionally, the war illustrates the difficulty a sea power faces in bringing its power to bear against a land power, and vice versa. The operational conduct of the Peloponnesian War demonstrates the interdependence of land power and sea power, a relationship which will later give rise to the concept of joint planning in military operations. This study provides the background and the analytical skills for the student to use in determining why subsequent joint and combined operations succeeded or failed. "Approaching today's problems through a study of the past," Admiral Turner remarked during his tenure, "is one way to ensure that we do not become trapped within the limits of our own experience."
1. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. R. Warner, Trans. New York: Penguin, 1972 and later editions.
2. Gray, Colin S. The Leverage of Sea Power. New York: The Free Press, 1992.
3. Kagan, Donald. On The Origins of War and the Preservation of Peace. New York: Doubleday, 1995.
4. Selected Reading:
(a) Halle, Louis J. "A Message from Thucydides," Civilization and Foreign Policy. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955, pp. 261-277. (Selected Readings, Vol. I)
The Thucydides text is difficult reading. The short essay by Halle and the Introduction by Finley (pp. 9-32 in the Warner text) provide the necessary background to acquaint you with Thucydides and his world. The maps in the atlas at the end of the Warner text and in the Selected Readings, as well as the grid-map provided by the War College, should also help you familiarize yourself with the Greek world at the time of the Peloponnesian War.
Next, read the rest of the required readings from the Warner text. For his part, Thucydides should be read more as a novel than as a textbook. History of the Peloponnesian War should be read critically -- remember that he got the time to write his History only because he was sent into exile early in the War (probably by Cleon) for failure to carry out his military mission; that he views Pericles particularly affectionately as he grew up in Pericles’ household; and that to vindicate Pericles as "first among equals" he must regard Democracy critically. As in all our case studies, the preconceptions and possible agendas of the author must be factored into our reading and analysis.
The issues Thucydides discusses are far more important than the names, dates, and places he mentions. Thus the debates and orations offered should be considered carefully. The assigned reading includes all the important issues which make this book a classic, particularly the ability of democracies to conduct prolonged wars; changing moral standards during a war; the advantages and disadvantages of coalitions; problems in identifying national objectives and formulating appropriate strategies to achieve these objectives; and the utility and limitations of sea power and land power. Almost every one of the eight course objectives listed earlier in this syllabus is addressed by Thucydides. Also, remember to use the concepts provided in the "Key Initial Considerations" on pages 4-6 to structure your analysis of strategy and policy in the Peloponnesian War.
Thucydides is considered to be the first modern historian, and many statesmen and scholars still consider his book to be the best single volume ever written in the field of international relations.
Kagan’s On The Origins of War discusses in modern terms the origin of the rivalry between the Greek nations, the peace that existed prior to the outbreak of the War and the crisis that caused the conflict, in modern terms.
Finally, consult Gray's The Leverage of Sea Power, which provides a general overview of the Peloponnesian War.